The Knowledge Intuition Approach
Physicalism, also known as “materialism” is an interpretation of the mind-body problem that states that the “physical” is fundamental. Because people are living in a physical world, minds also arise from the physical, also implying that minds can be explained by modern day physics. Therefore, as opposed to dualism, minds are not separate from the body and directly correlate to the physical. In an example such as c-fibers firing, it demonstrates how bodily pain can translate directly into neural impulses and sensations in the brain. The entirety of any “mental” event is explained by matter, energy and neurons. There are many varieties of said physicalism, but here, the broader definition will be used (as aforementioned).
The main rebuttal that will be examined here is the knowledge argument, as framed by Frank Jackson (1982). The basic premise of this theory is that the human experience and perception of whatever is “physical” can be limited by incomplete or complete knowledge. In other words, physical knowledge cannot fully encompass phenomenal/sensational knowledge (mind/mental). The experiment quoted by Jackson is one of Mary, a neurophysiologist who is forced to study the world in a black/white room with a black/white television monitor. As she observes human responses to specific stimuli like a ripe tomato or a sky (of course, in this scenario, it would be a different shade of black/white), she gains knowledge of all physical information in the world. When she is released from the room, she is handed a ripe tomato and learns something new, because she had previously not experienced the sensation of human color vision. Therefore, not all information is physical; or moreso, if it were physical, it is limited by the amount of information one is exposed to.
To more carefully dissect this deduction, it should be simplified into three main claims: that (1) there is a complete knowledge of everything physical before Mary leaves and (2) Mary learns something she’s never seen before upon leaving and (3) because Mary learns something new afterwards, she cannot have known that she didn’t know everything physical and that she’d learn something new upon leaving. Or, a different interpretation that (1) Mary fully knows everything about brain states, properties and everything physical (2) “It is not the case that Mary knows everything there is to know about sensations and their properties” (Churchland 1985) (3) Therefore, by Leibniz, sensations and their properties do not equal brain states and their properties. This, of course, sits on the assumption or a priori that everything physical depends on physics and therefore a complete knowledge of everything physical would entail a complete truth on color vision in humans. In the example of a color blind/deficient human, for example, his or her mind would be limited to the amount of colors he or she can physically see. But because he or she will never learn or see new colors (of current biotechnology), one will never have the phenomenal knowledge of experiencing colors. Hence, in comparison to Jackson’s experiment, Mary actually has the capacity to experience new phenomenal knowledge despite having all physical knowledge, proving that physicalism is false.
The issue with this approach is that Jackson’s claims sit on basic assumptions. It assumes that (if physicalism is true) all phenomenal knowledge of colors is a priori deduced from the complete physical truth. Without experience and simply through logic, the human colored vision is something that is part of the claim of “knowing all physical knowledge” or physics. But the truth is, there is a missing logical link between complete physical knowledge versus human color knowledge (or phenomenal knowledge). This is not something that can be assumed a priori. To deduce “if one has the complete physical knowledge, he or she would have the complete phenomenal/sensational knowledge” is metaphysically necessary but not of pure logic. Essentially, one can say that water is H2O on Earth, but this cannot be a priori because there are no logical links to this, and this is not a necessary truth that holds given the rules of nature. In the same way, if one has complete physical knowledge, one cannot argue that he or she should most definitely know all psychophysical knowledge. Therefore, this statement has to be assumed posteriori. And because Mary does not/cannot have the experience of knowing that “complete physical knowledge entails complete phenomenal knowledge”, she cannot know that this is true, which avoids the entire knowledge argument altogether.
In addition to this, there are other possibilities in which Jackson’s approach can be questioned. The easiest way to refute this would be that Mary isn’t learning something new but old knowledge presented in a new manner. When things were black and white, she assigned particular meanings to certain human reactions or shades of grey. Upon leaving the room, she was simply overwriting the original “equation”. To “fully know” all physical knowledge is different from “fully know[ing]” all phenomenal knowledge because they are measured in different ways. From the first, knowing all physical knowledge in Jackson’s case means knowing and mastering all representations of physics that can be seen or heard. But in the latter, knowing all phenomenal knowledge is of experiencing, which is a different type of knowledge. In essence, there is something uniquely distinct between something theoretical and something perceptual, where something qualitative cannot be reduced by something physicalist (or from theorized neuroscience). In more simple terms, knowing that the color of a mousepad is black is different from knowing how to drive a car, because theoretical knowledge is fundamentally different from an “ability” or “know-how” knowledge, one that can only be gained posteriori. Additionally, Jackson’s experiment assumes that somehow it is indeed possible to know “all things physical”, which is not entirely plausible or measurable. In the case that Mary does indeed know everything physical and how brain states function in respect to phenomena, Jackson disregards the possibility that Mary can deduce or imagine what it is like to experience this physical/theoretical knowledge.
To sum up, physicalism puts faith that all mental and sensational phenomena can be explained by the physical world. However, as Jackson argues, there are many possible explanations that disprove physicalism, shown through his Mary experiment or other theorists such as Hempel, of the disparities of physics in different times. In the case of Jackson’s knowledge intuition argument, there is the issue of priori and posteriori physicalism and also “propositional versus phenomenal” knowledge; although these points may discredit his rebuttal of physicalism, there are portions that have paved the way for newer forms of thought that seek to explain the mind-body problem. These are ways, like panpsychism, that offer completely innovative ways of seeing the philosophy of the mind that may or may not also be supported by modern day physics.
Kuna, Marian. (2004). The knowledge argument and the refutation of physicalism. 11. 128-142.
Physicalism (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy). (n.d.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/#UndPhyFurIss
Qualia: The knowledge argument (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy). (n.d.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qualia-knowledge/#BasiIdea
CHURCHLAND, P (1985)' Reduction, Qualia, and the Direct Introspection of Brain States The Journal of Philosophy 82, 8-28.
Knowledge argument against physicalism. (n.d.). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | An encyclopedia of philosophy articles written by professional philosophers. https://iep.utm.edu/know-arg/
Quine: Terms explained. (n.d.). Rochester Institute of Technology | RIT. https://www.rit.edu/cla/philosophy/quine/physicalism.html
Physicalism - By branch / Doctrine - The basics of philosophy. (n.d.). The Basics of Philosophy: A huge subject broken down into manageable chunks. https://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_physicalism.html
Physicalism, also known as “materialism” is an interpretation of the mind-body problem that states that the “physical” is fundamental. Because people are living in a physical world, minds also arise from the physical, also implying that minds can be explained by modern day physics. Therefore, as opposed to dualism, minds are not separate from the body and directly correlate to the physical. In an example such as c-fibers firing, it demonstrates how bodily pain can translate directly into neural impulses and sensations in the brain. The entirety of any “mental” event is explained by matter, energy and neurons. There are many varieties of said physicalism, but here, the broader definition will be used (as aforementioned).
The main rebuttal that will be examined here is the knowledge argument, as framed by Frank Jackson (1982). The basic premise of this theory is that the human experience and perception of whatever is “physical” can be limited by incomplete or complete knowledge. In other words, physical knowledge cannot fully encompass phenomenal/sensational knowledge (mind/mental). The experiment quoted by Jackson is one of Mary, a neurophysiologist who is forced to study the world in a black/white room with a black/white television monitor. As she observes human responses to specific stimuli like a ripe tomato or a sky (of course, in this scenario, it would be a different shade of black/white), she gains knowledge of all physical information in the world. When she is released from the room, she is handed a ripe tomato and learns something new, because she had previously not experienced the sensation of human color vision. Therefore, not all information is physical; or moreso, if it were physical, it is limited by the amount of information one is exposed to.
To more carefully dissect this deduction, it should be simplified into three main claims: that (1) there is a complete knowledge of everything physical before Mary leaves and (2) Mary learns something she’s never seen before upon leaving and (3) because Mary learns something new afterwards, she cannot have known that she didn’t know everything physical and that she’d learn something new upon leaving. Or, a different interpretation that (1) Mary fully knows everything about brain states, properties and everything physical (2) “It is not the case that Mary knows everything there is to know about sensations and their properties” (Churchland 1985) (3) Therefore, by Leibniz, sensations and their properties do not equal brain states and their properties. This, of course, sits on the assumption or a priori that everything physical depends on physics and therefore a complete knowledge of everything physical would entail a complete truth on color vision in humans. In the example of a color blind/deficient human, for example, his or her mind would be limited to the amount of colors he or she can physically see. But because he or she will never learn or see new colors (of current biotechnology), one will never have the phenomenal knowledge of experiencing colors. Hence, in comparison to Jackson’s experiment, Mary actually has the capacity to experience new phenomenal knowledge despite having all physical knowledge, proving that physicalism is false.
The issue with this approach is that Jackson’s claims sit on basic assumptions. It assumes that (if physicalism is true) all phenomenal knowledge of colors is a priori deduced from the complete physical truth. Without experience and simply through logic, the human colored vision is something that is part of the claim of “knowing all physical knowledge” or physics. But the truth is, there is a missing logical link between complete physical knowledge versus human color knowledge (or phenomenal knowledge). This is not something that can be assumed a priori. To deduce “if one has the complete physical knowledge, he or she would have the complete phenomenal/sensational knowledge” is metaphysically necessary but not of pure logic. Essentially, one can say that water is H2O on Earth, but this cannot be a priori because there are no logical links to this, and this is not a necessary truth that holds given the rules of nature. In the same way, if one has complete physical knowledge, one cannot argue that he or she should most definitely know all psychophysical knowledge. Therefore, this statement has to be assumed posteriori. And because Mary does not/cannot have the experience of knowing that “complete physical knowledge entails complete phenomenal knowledge”, she cannot know that this is true, which avoids the entire knowledge argument altogether.
In addition to this, there are other possibilities in which Jackson’s approach can be questioned. The easiest way to refute this would be that Mary isn’t learning something new but old knowledge presented in a new manner. When things were black and white, she assigned particular meanings to certain human reactions or shades of grey. Upon leaving the room, she was simply overwriting the original “equation”. To “fully know” all physical knowledge is different from “fully know[ing]” all phenomenal knowledge because they are measured in different ways. From the first, knowing all physical knowledge in Jackson’s case means knowing and mastering all representations of physics that can be seen or heard. But in the latter, knowing all phenomenal knowledge is of experiencing, which is a different type of knowledge. In essence, there is something uniquely distinct between something theoretical and something perceptual, where something qualitative cannot be reduced by something physicalist (or from theorized neuroscience). In more simple terms, knowing that the color of a mousepad is black is different from knowing how to drive a car, because theoretical knowledge is fundamentally different from an “ability” or “know-how” knowledge, one that can only be gained posteriori. Additionally, Jackson’s experiment assumes that somehow it is indeed possible to know “all things physical”, which is not entirely plausible or measurable. In the case that Mary does indeed know everything physical and how brain states function in respect to phenomena, Jackson disregards the possibility that Mary can deduce or imagine what it is like to experience this physical/theoretical knowledge.
To sum up, physicalism puts faith that all mental and sensational phenomena can be explained by the physical world. However, as Jackson argues, there are many possible explanations that disprove physicalism, shown through his Mary experiment or other theorists such as Hempel, of the disparities of physics in different times. In the case of Jackson’s knowledge intuition argument, there is the issue of priori and posteriori physicalism and also “propositional versus phenomenal” knowledge; although these points may discredit his rebuttal of physicalism, there are portions that have paved the way for newer forms of thought that seek to explain the mind-body problem. These are ways, like panpsychism, that offer completely innovative ways of seeing the philosophy of the mind that may or may not also be supported by modern day physics.
Kuna, Marian. (2004). The knowledge argument and the refutation of physicalism. 11. 128-142.
Physicalism (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy). (n.d.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/#UndPhyFurIss
Qualia: The knowledge argument (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy). (n.d.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qualia-knowledge/#BasiIdea
CHURCHLAND, P (1985)' Reduction, Qualia, and the Direct Introspection of Brain States The Journal of Philosophy 82, 8-28.
Knowledge argument against physicalism. (n.d.). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | An encyclopedia of philosophy articles written by professional philosophers. https://iep.utm.edu/know-arg/
Quine: Terms explained. (n.d.). Rochester Institute of Technology | RIT. https://www.rit.edu/cla/philosophy/quine/physicalism.html
Physicalism - By branch / Doctrine - The basics of philosophy. (n.d.). The Basics of Philosophy: A huge subject broken down into manageable chunks. https://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_physicalism.html
Of Mice and Men: Heritability and Modern Meditation
"Take a holiday from reality whenever you like, and come back without so much as a headache or a mythology." (Brave New World)
In the sci-fi novel Brave New World, Aldous Huxley writes of the happiness-inducing drug soma, six years after “it was being produced commercially. The perfect drug… Stability was practically assured.” (Goodreads) This, quite frankly, is the promise of modern meditative practices, to provide “open-minded holistic ethos and state-of-the-art technology”, “a sanctuary for wellbeing” and luxurious services such as anti-aging (Amanpuri). Within the realm of emotional health, the commercialization of meditation in the past decade indeed often seems to promise a certain type of stability for a certain type of person —productivity and stress relief in a world hell-bent on destroying itself within the fiery grasp of 21st century capitalism. But of course, these effects can go away and are limited to the individual. Or are they? What if some of the benefits could be passed on epigenetically to offspring?
The “mass production” of this “drug” has brought along a billion dollar industry and approximately 9.3 million Americans who meditate (Medium). The stress-relieving effects of meditation have been studied with fervour by many scholars, including well known Brown University neuroscientist Catherine Kerr, Madhav Goyal from John Hopkins, etc. In a 2015 article from Forbes, these effects included “preserv[ation] [of] the aging brain... reduc[ed] activity in the brain’s ‘Me Center’... effectively rivaling antidepressants for depression and anxiety... improved concentration and attention.”
According to “The State of Mindfulness Science” from the Greater Good Magazine of Berkeley, meditation “almost certainly does sharpen your attention.” It allows one to focus truly on moment-to-moment sensations, which essentially helps tone the mind towards improved attention towards tasks. This not only includes reduced “mind-wandering,” but also an enhanced ability to solve problems, a necessary creative skill in the modern day workplace. Additionally, long term consistent meditation increases “resiliency to stress” (Smith). In the long run, as mentioned by the article, the inflammatory response to stress lessens because mindfulness practices “dampen activity in our amygdala and increase the connections between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.” The amygdala, an almond-shaped set of neurons in the medial temporal lobe of the human brain, plays the role in processing fear responses/pleasure; increased connections between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC) means the PFC retains cognitive abilities under stressful conditions. What’s truly intriguing, though, is the possibility of inheriting these traits of stress resiliency.
If it is possible for humans to gain stress-relief traits under long-term meditation, then from the scientifically established existence of epigenetics, it would be possible for human offspring to inherit these abilities as epigenetic traits from their parents. In this research paper, I aim to represent the current extent of research done on this issue. This is to establish possible connections between epigenetics and meditative behavior, to help envision a more positive future in terms of genetics and creating a generation to face grave issues such as global warming and overpopulation.
Background: Epigenetics, Stress, and Meditation
The fundamental premise of epigenetics is that chemical factors around DNA and they impact genetic expression. Epigenetic factors such as stress can control the activity of particular DNA fragments, to exhibit different effects for descendants. However, it should be noted that epigenetic change does not alter the structure of DNA, it is only the rate of genetic expression that is altered (Househam). In these cases of stressful childhood upbringings, people contained more “stay silent” switches on genes for stress response (Meaney), a phenomenon also seen within rats. The famous rat experiment done by Meaney in 2005 showed that baby rats could silence particular genes through epigenetic mechanisms from a stress response; these varied for rats that were brought up under neglectful versus responsible mothers. The lack of full attention to the baby rat from the mother would cause a spike in hormones in its brain, becoming a “neurotic mess, freezing when placed in unfamiliar surroundings” (Mindful).
In simpler terms, epigenetics signifies an existing relationship between genes and environments. There is “little doubt that epigenetic inheritance is real,” even though it goes against the idea that inheritance only happens between the parent-child DNA code (University of Utah). Within the nature versus nurture argument, the epigenetic perspective adds an additional point of view, as the “nature” part of things is no longer limited to the prior belief that DNA is the only way to pass on traits to the next generation. Essentially, it renders the competitive relationship between nature and nurture as null and void. Even for identical twins, they share relatively similar epigenetic states at birth, but different life experiences allow them to establish distinct phenotypes, or the organism’s observable traits (SAGE Encyclopedia).
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MSBRs, or MBI for meditative-based interventions) is a secular approach towards assisting people with stress, anxiety and pain. It has its roots within traditional Buddhism but within the 21st century application it has been used in a commercialized and medical manner. In cultural and traditional senses, meditation and mindfulness based meditation have been used mainly to develop mental focus and states of consciousness, which have also been used by other religions such as Islam, Christianity and Judaism.
The assumption that of this essay is that meditation is unquestionably beneficial towards stress-relief and that it has no real cultural/religious misappropriations. In terms of its benefits, Catherine Kerr, an Assistant Professor of Medicine and Family Medicine at Brown, mentions it as a practice that people engage in that are clinically proven to help manage stress and disorders (Heuman). Importantly, it works for a wide variety of people, although for some, it has been unuseful. However, within this paper, the premise will be geared towards research involving people who have indeed enjoyed tangible effects from non-religious meditation.
Histones and Epigenetic Regulators:
One of the most well-known texts on this matter is a peer reviewed piece “Epigenetics and Meditation” written by Perla Kaliman, part of the faculty of Health Sciences at Universitat Oberta de Catalunya and an Honorary Fellow for the Center for Healthy Minds at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. According to her research and others, epigenetics and meditative qualities show positive possibilities (Kaliman). There have been observed lowered expression of HDAC levels among meditators as well as decreased epigenetic aging rates; these are indicators of possible steps in fighting depression and fast epigenetic clocks (caused by stress). Most importantly, these pilot studies, or preliminary studies, show that “MBIs may downregulate epigenetic pathways related with inflammation, cell-aging and depression.” (Kaliman 75) In other words, MBIs may possibly reduce the response towards the stimuli of stress-caused inflammation and cell-aging. This means that signal pathways are able to receive outside stimulus in a way that minimizes damage and exposure.
The important point to note about Kaliman’s studies is that these are ongoing processes of data-collection. Some findings in the long-term meditators do indeed follow the hypothesis that there will be long-lasting epigenetic changes as a result of these behaviors, as “altered transcriptional profiles and differential neurophysiological traits have been detected in long-term meditators.” (Kaliman 76) Similarly, it was conceived that the epigenetic impact of MBIs could be dynamic, under careful analysis of results.
Kaliman herself focused on a specific part of meditative effects — histone modifications and changes in expressions of chromatin modulatory genes within meditators after a day-long mindfulness retreat. Histones are the main proteins in chromatin, packing DNA into nucleosomes (Britannica). The group of 19 people were complemented with 21 who had no experience in mindfulness based practices, put as a control group. Then, after eight hours of meditation, “meditators showed lower expression levels of several histone deacetylase genes [HDAC2, 3 and 9] and alterations in global modification of histones [H4ac; H3K4me3] in PBMCs” (Kaliman 77). These histones were commonly associated to the effects of engaging in oxidative stress, or exercise. After meditation, these people were more calm and stable; in addition, they displayed downregulations of gene COX2, which are inflammatory genes linked to HDAC (Histone deacetylases) activity, which are inhibitors linked to epigenetic regulators (Britannica). HDACs, in particular, are the main focus of modern cures to emotional disorders such as depression.
Research in meditation and the sphere of epigenetics, while exciting, still have many barriers in place. Part of this comes down to rapidly evolving technologies and ways to perform data analysis. Without a set system in place to record and practice experiments, these experiments cannot take account for “the fact that epigenetic profiles can be significantly influenced over short periods of time by environmental exposures and lifestyle” (Kaliman 78). Similarly, randomized and controlled trials of larger groups of meditators are also required in order to find and validate certain claims. Current results may seem promising, but they need much more time in order to thoroughly validate these bioinformatic predictions. Quite frankly, “gene expression and epigenetic changes with precise neurophysiological outcomes” as mentioned by Kaliman, need to be fully observed within proper clinical settings with patients adhering to a standard of health.
The Realm of TM (The Transcendental Meditation Technique):
In the 1950s, a form of silent mantra meditation was developed by an Indian guru, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, called Transcendental Meditation. It uses a mantra, an imagined non-audible repeated sound or word, to accompany a twenty minute seated meditation with closed eyes. It is meant for one to create a stream of thought and a sense of attention, to then transcend it (TM Organization). In the commercialization of the TM technique, it is stated to be “absolutely effortless, authentic, unique, evidence-based, established, and nothing to believe in”.
The main goal of TM is for the meditator to transcend thought to experience “pure awareness,” rather than mindfulness meditation that focuses on a present moment. TM, interestingly, comes from a more Vedic and Hindu background than mindfulness meditation from Jon Kabat-Zinn (Lechner). To most meditators of TM, the engagement is more natural, simple and effortless. To settle down naturally and reduce random thoughts, the effects of TM on the brain are mainly alpha brain waves, opposed to beta. Additionally, TM has been observed to evoke the default mode network, the resting mode of the brain. In other words, rather than to train one to gain attentiveness in mindfulness meditation, TM puts the human brain into the realm of “blankness”, a state that puts the mind in a space less present and less rooted in reality.
From “Mind Over DNA: Transforming DNA from the Inside Out (Our Conscious Future)”, a talk done by Dr. Robert H. Schneider, M.D., F.A.C.C., TM also has specific links towards epigenetics. Schneider is board-certified in preventive medicine, a certified specialist in clinical hypertension, and a Fellow of the American College of Cardiology. The trigger of epigenetic development comes from thoughts, lifestyle choices, process of development (love, affection), drugs and chemicals; these all have impacts towards DNA expression and therefore TM has its relative benefits. In Schneider’s example of 30 subjects with prostate cancer, they went through intensive lifestyle change interventions in diet, exercise and stress management. The results, as per the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, showed RAN gene downregulation and ZNF250 gene upregulation. RAN genes, typically for cancer, had been silenced, while ZNF250 genes for building new proteins had been more emphasized.
Similarly, the length of telomeres, the protective ends of DNA, have been found to decrease with aging. Specifically, telomerase (protectors for telomeres) had increased expressions (hTERT) after practicing TM, for both meditators and non-meditators. The change in DNA and epigenetic expression shows that practicers of TM do indeed have a lower chance of death from heart attack and stroke (Schneider). In fact, according to data from his joint-research “Stress reduction in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease”, there is a 48% lowered risk of heart attack and stroke to Transcendental Meditation practitioners over 5 years of follow up. The technologies have shown very well and clearly that epigenetic expressions for telomere lengths decrease under stress, but as Schneider states, the opposite side hasn’t been shown well. Even though there is research done that seems to allude to remarkably effective ways of TM slowing epigenetic aging, it isn’t at all conclusive. Research done by Schneider is mainly focused on the cardiovascular side of things; for the broader range of conclusive evidence, more research is to be done.
Ending Chronic Dukkha:
In terms of long term stress, or chronic dukkha, research has also been done. NYU Professor Ayman Househam, a neuropsychology researcher, has found that on average, “meditators exhibit lower levels of cortisol compared to nonmeditators.” (22) Some studies showed that after meditating, there was an increase in plasma cortisol, correlating with a positive affect, or how one experiences joy/interest. Meditators also tend to have lower blood pressures, heart rates and oxygen metabolisms. Increased attention, memory and focus during meditation have been attributed to the activation of the anterior cingulate cortex part of the brain (ACC); with greater synergy between the Sympathetic Nervous System and the Parasympathetic Nervous System, promoting healthier cardiac function (Househam).
As for immune system effects, the same observed effects of COX2 downregulation have been observed, correlating to HDAC (and therefore a therapeutic avenue for depression) inhibitors. However, the cause of these positive changes have yet to be determined as there isn’t enough existing research, because first of all, meditation should be integrated into conventional healthcare for researchers to be able to fully observe the effects of meditation on epigenetics.
Conclusion:
All in all, the ever-changing nature of humans means that proper measurements and conclusive evidence have not been gathered. The currently existing sources of research agree on one point though, that research is definitely in order, to generate more data entries for analysis to find a real answer. Evidence seems positively The sample size of dedicated meditators has also been relatively unstable and small, since the rise of meditative practices has mainly been accredited to the last two decades, where only then has the public really grown aware to these practices.
Most of the research that has been done points in the direction of a better future. It is a quite optimistic line of inquiry and scientists are currently attempting to uncover yet another possibility of epigenetic heritability. The possibility of this extends beyond any comprehensibility; as not only will the world have artificial intelligence taking our jobs, but we will also effectively be able to control our genetic expression through our daily activities, to engineer a problem-solving generation to tackle the questions of the 21st.
Unless, somehow, these epigenetic modifications have led to a sort of desensitization of stress and emotions. Then, we will truly have a problem to solve. ‘Tis truly, a brave new world.
Smith, J., Suttie, J., Jazaieri, H. and Newman, K. “The State of Mindfulness Science” Greater
Good, 5 Dec. 2017, https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/the_state_of_mindfulness_science
Kaliman, Perla. “Epigenetics and Meditation.” Current Opinion in Psychology, vol. 28, 2019, pp.
76–80., doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.11.010.
Begley, Sharon. “Can Meditation Change Your Genes?” Mindful, 21 Aug. 2018,
www.mindful.org/can-meditation-change-genes/.
Schneider, Robert. “Mind Over DNA: Transforming DNA from the Inside Out (Our Conscious
Future)” YouTube, 13 May 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gu33jzWYxQU.
Schneider, Robert H, et al. “Stress Reduction in the Secondary Prevention of Cardiovascular
Disease: Randomized, Controlled Trial of Transcendental Meditation and Health Education in Blacks.” Circulation. Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Nov. 2012, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23149426.
Househam, Ayman & Peterson, Christine & Chopra, Deepak. (2017). The Effects of Stress and
Meditation on the Immune System, Human Microbiota, and Epigenetics. Advances in mind-body medicine. 31. 10-25.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Histone.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 21 July 2013, www.britannica.com/science/histone.
“Dukkha.” Dukkha, 2005, www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sacca/sacca1/dukkha.html.
Saddhājīva, Bhikkhu. The Three Basic Facts of Existence II: Suffering (Dukkha). Buddhist
Publication Society, 2006, www.what-buddha-said.net/library/Wheels/wh191.pdf.
“Brave New World Quotes by Aldous Huxley.” Goodreads, Goodreads,
www.goodreads.com/work/quotes/3204877-brave-new-world.
Patricio, Marco. “How Mindfulness Became a Billion Dollar Industry.” Medium, Medium, 13
Nov. 2018, www.medium.com/@actuallyme/how-mindfulness-became-a-billion-dollar-industry-61acb50fd436.
Heuman, Linda. “Don't Believe the Hype.” Tricycle, 26 Mar. 2018,
www.tricycle.org/trikedaily/dont-believe-hype/.
“Holistic Wellness Retreats, Thailand - Amanpuri Spa & Hotel – Aman.” Aman, 24 Apr. 2019,
www.aman.com/resorts/amanpuri/wellness.
Walton, Alice G. “7 Ways Meditation Can Actually Change The Brain.” Forbes, Forbes
Magazine, 17 Jan. 2018, www.forbes.com/sites/alicegwalton/2015/02/09/7-ways-meditation-can-actually-change-the-brain/#7c9b616a1465.
Lechner, Tamara. “5 Types of Meditation Decoded.” The Chopra Center, 14 May 2019,
www.chopra.com/articles/5-types-of-meditation-decoded.
"Take a holiday from reality whenever you like, and come back without so much as a headache or a mythology." (Brave New World)
In the sci-fi novel Brave New World, Aldous Huxley writes of the happiness-inducing drug soma, six years after “it was being produced commercially. The perfect drug… Stability was practically assured.” (Goodreads) This, quite frankly, is the promise of modern meditative practices, to provide “open-minded holistic ethos and state-of-the-art technology”, “a sanctuary for wellbeing” and luxurious services such as anti-aging (Amanpuri). Within the realm of emotional health, the commercialization of meditation in the past decade indeed often seems to promise a certain type of stability for a certain type of person —productivity and stress relief in a world hell-bent on destroying itself within the fiery grasp of 21st century capitalism. But of course, these effects can go away and are limited to the individual. Or are they? What if some of the benefits could be passed on epigenetically to offspring?
The “mass production” of this “drug” has brought along a billion dollar industry and approximately 9.3 million Americans who meditate (Medium). The stress-relieving effects of meditation have been studied with fervour by many scholars, including well known Brown University neuroscientist Catherine Kerr, Madhav Goyal from John Hopkins, etc. In a 2015 article from Forbes, these effects included “preserv[ation] [of] the aging brain... reduc[ed] activity in the brain’s ‘Me Center’... effectively rivaling antidepressants for depression and anxiety... improved concentration and attention.”
According to “The State of Mindfulness Science” from the Greater Good Magazine of Berkeley, meditation “almost certainly does sharpen your attention.” It allows one to focus truly on moment-to-moment sensations, which essentially helps tone the mind towards improved attention towards tasks. This not only includes reduced “mind-wandering,” but also an enhanced ability to solve problems, a necessary creative skill in the modern day workplace. Additionally, long term consistent meditation increases “resiliency to stress” (Smith). In the long run, as mentioned by the article, the inflammatory response to stress lessens because mindfulness practices “dampen activity in our amygdala and increase the connections between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.” The amygdala, an almond-shaped set of neurons in the medial temporal lobe of the human brain, plays the role in processing fear responses/pleasure; increased connections between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC) means the PFC retains cognitive abilities under stressful conditions. What’s truly intriguing, though, is the possibility of inheriting these traits of stress resiliency.
If it is possible for humans to gain stress-relief traits under long-term meditation, then from the scientifically established existence of epigenetics, it would be possible for human offspring to inherit these abilities as epigenetic traits from their parents. In this research paper, I aim to represent the current extent of research done on this issue. This is to establish possible connections between epigenetics and meditative behavior, to help envision a more positive future in terms of genetics and creating a generation to face grave issues such as global warming and overpopulation.
Background: Epigenetics, Stress, and Meditation
The fundamental premise of epigenetics is that chemical factors around DNA and they impact genetic expression. Epigenetic factors such as stress can control the activity of particular DNA fragments, to exhibit different effects for descendants. However, it should be noted that epigenetic change does not alter the structure of DNA, it is only the rate of genetic expression that is altered (Househam). In these cases of stressful childhood upbringings, people contained more “stay silent” switches on genes for stress response (Meaney), a phenomenon also seen within rats. The famous rat experiment done by Meaney in 2005 showed that baby rats could silence particular genes through epigenetic mechanisms from a stress response; these varied for rats that were brought up under neglectful versus responsible mothers. The lack of full attention to the baby rat from the mother would cause a spike in hormones in its brain, becoming a “neurotic mess, freezing when placed in unfamiliar surroundings” (Mindful).
In simpler terms, epigenetics signifies an existing relationship between genes and environments. There is “little doubt that epigenetic inheritance is real,” even though it goes against the idea that inheritance only happens between the parent-child DNA code (University of Utah). Within the nature versus nurture argument, the epigenetic perspective adds an additional point of view, as the “nature” part of things is no longer limited to the prior belief that DNA is the only way to pass on traits to the next generation. Essentially, it renders the competitive relationship between nature and nurture as null and void. Even for identical twins, they share relatively similar epigenetic states at birth, but different life experiences allow them to establish distinct phenotypes, or the organism’s observable traits (SAGE Encyclopedia).
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MSBRs, or MBI for meditative-based interventions) is a secular approach towards assisting people with stress, anxiety and pain. It has its roots within traditional Buddhism but within the 21st century application it has been used in a commercialized and medical manner. In cultural and traditional senses, meditation and mindfulness based meditation have been used mainly to develop mental focus and states of consciousness, which have also been used by other religions such as Islam, Christianity and Judaism.
The assumption that of this essay is that meditation is unquestionably beneficial towards stress-relief and that it has no real cultural/religious misappropriations. In terms of its benefits, Catherine Kerr, an Assistant Professor of Medicine and Family Medicine at Brown, mentions it as a practice that people engage in that are clinically proven to help manage stress and disorders (Heuman). Importantly, it works for a wide variety of people, although for some, it has been unuseful. However, within this paper, the premise will be geared towards research involving people who have indeed enjoyed tangible effects from non-religious meditation.
Histones and Epigenetic Regulators:
One of the most well-known texts on this matter is a peer reviewed piece “Epigenetics and Meditation” written by Perla Kaliman, part of the faculty of Health Sciences at Universitat Oberta de Catalunya and an Honorary Fellow for the Center for Healthy Minds at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. According to her research and others, epigenetics and meditative qualities show positive possibilities (Kaliman). There have been observed lowered expression of HDAC levels among meditators as well as decreased epigenetic aging rates; these are indicators of possible steps in fighting depression and fast epigenetic clocks (caused by stress). Most importantly, these pilot studies, or preliminary studies, show that “MBIs may downregulate epigenetic pathways related with inflammation, cell-aging and depression.” (Kaliman 75) In other words, MBIs may possibly reduce the response towards the stimuli of stress-caused inflammation and cell-aging. This means that signal pathways are able to receive outside stimulus in a way that minimizes damage and exposure.
The important point to note about Kaliman’s studies is that these are ongoing processes of data-collection. Some findings in the long-term meditators do indeed follow the hypothesis that there will be long-lasting epigenetic changes as a result of these behaviors, as “altered transcriptional profiles and differential neurophysiological traits have been detected in long-term meditators.” (Kaliman 76) Similarly, it was conceived that the epigenetic impact of MBIs could be dynamic, under careful analysis of results.
Kaliman herself focused on a specific part of meditative effects — histone modifications and changes in expressions of chromatin modulatory genes within meditators after a day-long mindfulness retreat. Histones are the main proteins in chromatin, packing DNA into nucleosomes (Britannica). The group of 19 people were complemented with 21 who had no experience in mindfulness based practices, put as a control group. Then, after eight hours of meditation, “meditators showed lower expression levels of several histone deacetylase genes [HDAC2, 3 and 9] and alterations in global modification of histones [H4ac; H3K4me3] in PBMCs” (Kaliman 77). These histones were commonly associated to the effects of engaging in oxidative stress, or exercise. After meditation, these people were more calm and stable; in addition, they displayed downregulations of gene COX2, which are inflammatory genes linked to HDAC (Histone deacetylases) activity, which are inhibitors linked to epigenetic regulators (Britannica). HDACs, in particular, are the main focus of modern cures to emotional disorders such as depression.
Research in meditation and the sphere of epigenetics, while exciting, still have many barriers in place. Part of this comes down to rapidly evolving technologies and ways to perform data analysis. Without a set system in place to record and practice experiments, these experiments cannot take account for “the fact that epigenetic profiles can be significantly influenced over short periods of time by environmental exposures and lifestyle” (Kaliman 78). Similarly, randomized and controlled trials of larger groups of meditators are also required in order to find and validate certain claims. Current results may seem promising, but they need much more time in order to thoroughly validate these bioinformatic predictions. Quite frankly, “gene expression and epigenetic changes with precise neurophysiological outcomes” as mentioned by Kaliman, need to be fully observed within proper clinical settings with patients adhering to a standard of health.
The Realm of TM (The Transcendental Meditation Technique):
In the 1950s, a form of silent mantra meditation was developed by an Indian guru, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, called Transcendental Meditation. It uses a mantra, an imagined non-audible repeated sound or word, to accompany a twenty minute seated meditation with closed eyes. It is meant for one to create a stream of thought and a sense of attention, to then transcend it (TM Organization). In the commercialization of the TM technique, it is stated to be “absolutely effortless, authentic, unique, evidence-based, established, and nothing to believe in”.
The main goal of TM is for the meditator to transcend thought to experience “pure awareness,” rather than mindfulness meditation that focuses on a present moment. TM, interestingly, comes from a more Vedic and Hindu background than mindfulness meditation from Jon Kabat-Zinn (Lechner). To most meditators of TM, the engagement is more natural, simple and effortless. To settle down naturally and reduce random thoughts, the effects of TM on the brain are mainly alpha brain waves, opposed to beta. Additionally, TM has been observed to evoke the default mode network, the resting mode of the brain. In other words, rather than to train one to gain attentiveness in mindfulness meditation, TM puts the human brain into the realm of “blankness”, a state that puts the mind in a space less present and less rooted in reality.
From “Mind Over DNA: Transforming DNA from the Inside Out (Our Conscious Future)”, a talk done by Dr. Robert H. Schneider, M.D., F.A.C.C., TM also has specific links towards epigenetics. Schneider is board-certified in preventive medicine, a certified specialist in clinical hypertension, and a Fellow of the American College of Cardiology. The trigger of epigenetic development comes from thoughts, lifestyle choices, process of development (love, affection), drugs and chemicals; these all have impacts towards DNA expression and therefore TM has its relative benefits. In Schneider’s example of 30 subjects with prostate cancer, they went through intensive lifestyle change interventions in diet, exercise and stress management. The results, as per the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, showed RAN gene downregulation and ZNF250 gene upregulation. RAN genes, typically for cancer, had been silenced, while ZNF250 genes for building new proteins had been more emphasized.
Similarly, the length of telomeres, the protective ends of DNA, have been found to decrease with aging. Specifically, telomerase (protectors for telomeres) had increased expressions (hTERT) after practicing TM, for both meditators and non-meditators. The change in DNA and epigenetic expression shows that practicers of TM do indeed have a lower chance of death from heart attack and stroke (Schneider). In fact, according to data from his joint-research “Stress reduction in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease”, there is a 48% lowered risk of heart attack and stroke to Transcendental Meditation practitioners over 5 years of follow up. The technologies have shown very well and clearly that epigenetic expressions for telomere lengths decrease under stress, but as Schneider states, the opposite side hasn’t been shown well. Even though there is research done that seems to allude to remarkably effective ways of TM slowing epigenetic aging, it isn’t at all conclusive. Research done by Schneider is mainly focused on the cardiovascular side of things; for the broader range of conclusive evidence, more research is to be done.
Ending Chronic Dukkha:
In terms of long term stress, or chronic dukkha, research has also been done. NYU Professor Ayman Househam, a neuropsychology researcher, has found that on average, “meditators exhibit lower levels of cortisol compared to nonmeditators.” (22) Some studies showed that after meditating, there was an increase in plasma cortisol, correlating with a positive affect, or how one experiences joy/interest. Meditators also tend to have lower blood pressures, heart rates and oxygen metabolisms. Increased attention, memory and focus during meditation have been attributed to the activation of the anterior cingulate cortex part of the brain (ACC); with greater synergy between the Sympathetic Nervous System and the Parasympathetic Nervous System, promoting healthier cardiac function (Househam).
As for immune system effects, the same observed effects of COX2 downregulation have been observed, correlating to HDAC (and therefore a therapeutic avenue for depression) inhibitors. However, the cause of these positive changes have yet to be determined as there isn’t enough existing research, because first of all, meditation should be integrated into conventional healthcare for researchers to be able to fully observe the effects of meditation on epigenetics.
Conclusion:
All in all, the ever-changing nature of humans means that proper measurements and conclusive evidence have not been gathered. The currently existing sources of research agree on one point though, that research is definitely in order, to generate more data entries for analysis to find a real answer. Evidence seems positively The sample size of dedicated meditators has also been relatively unstable and small, since the rise of meditative practices has mainly been accredited to the last two decades, where only then has the public really grown aware to these practices.
Most of the research that has been done points in the direction of a better future. It is a quite optimistic line of inquiry and scientists are currently attempting to uncover yet another possibility of epigenetic heritability. The possibility of this extends beyond any comprehensibility; as not only will the world have artificial intelligence taking our jobs, but we will also effectively be able to control our genetic expression through our daily activities, to engineer a problem-solving generation to tackle the questions of the 21st.
Unless, somehow, these epigenetic modifications have led to a sort of desensitization of stress and emotions. Then, we will truly have a problem to solve. ‘Tis truly, a brave new world.
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